Empire Orders found in Pictures

Members of the Korean Royal Family

The awards given to Emperor Kwangmu, Emperor Sunjong and Crown Prince Yi Un, while obvious from the pictures, are not recorded by date. So, they do not show up in the official recipient roles.

---

Yi Beom-Jin 이범진 (李範晉1852-1911)

Yi Beom-Jin 이범진 (李範晉1852-1911) was a pro-Russian politician during the Korean Empire period. As a bureaucrat, he served as the Minister of Justice and the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce during the port opening period. In 1895, when the Empress Myeongseong (Queen Min) advocated a pro-Russian policy, he joined the pro-Russian faction and became the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce. He resigned after the assassination of Empress Myeongseong. In Nov. 1895, he led the Chunsaengmun Incident, which failed, and he was forced to flee to Russia. The following year, he returned to Korea and caused a riot, drove out Kim Hong-jip and others, and established a pro-Russian cabinet. In 1900, he became the Korean Minister to Russia and concurrently served as the Korean Minister to Germany, Austria, and France. In November 1905, when the Japanese forced the Eulsa Treaty, he was summoned to return to Korea. He refused to comply and stayed in the Russian capital of Saint Petersburg.

In 1907, the Emperor Kojong sent secret emissaries Yi Sang-seol 이상설 (李相卨) and Yi Jun 이준 (李儁) to the Second Peace Conference at The Hague in the Netherlands. When they arrived in Saint Petersburg, they consulted Yi Beom-jin, who wrote a personal letter to Emperor Kojong and appointed his son Yi Wi-jong 이위종 (李瑋鐘) as an interpreter for the members of the secret Hague delegation. He also asked the Russian emperor for his support, who took measures to ensure that the emissaries arrived safely in The Hague under the protection of Russian escorts. In addition, the Russians actively supported the delegation and provided opportunities for the Korean emissaries to make contact and give speeches to the reporters of various countries. Emperor Kojong’s emissaries were unable to enter the convention hall because Korea was no longer viewed as an independent nation, since Japan had assumed responsibility for Korean international representation. On July 14, a few days after protesting against their rejection by the international community, Yi Jun committed suicide in his room at the Hotel De Jong in the Wagenstraat, The Hague. On July 17, 1904, Japanese Vice Foreign Minister Sutemi Chinda reported to the Residency-General of Korea, that Yi Jun’s cause of death was erysipelas, a wound infected with streptococcus. He went on to complain, ‘There are people spreading rumors that it was a suicide, but the truth will be known.’ Sutemi Chinda (珍田捨巳 1857 – 1929) received the Korean Order of Taeguk, 1st Class on Sept. 24, 1904. The true nature of the original Tokyo Telegram reporting the news of a death by suicide that ‘Daehan Maeil Shinbo (newspaper)’ received is unknown. Years later, Japanese newspapers suggested that Yi Jun was killed by Japanese spies. The mission had failed in its primary purpose, but the three Koreans succeeded in receiving worldwide attention due to a press conference and because they received extensive attention by the independent newspaper which covered the Peace Conference. The direct result of their mission was that the Emperor Kojong was forced to resign in favor of his son Sunjong on July 20, 1907.

In 1908, when Yi Beom-yun (李範允) organized a volunteer army in Primorsky, he sent funds to help subsidize the effort. In 1910, with the annexation of Korea by Japan, he unsuccessfully tried to commit suicide with a pistol. On Jan. 26, 1911, he hanged himself.

The Emperor Kojong awarded Yi Beom-Jin the Order of Taeguk, 2^nd Class (Feb. 25, 1901) and the Order of Taeguk, 1^st Class (Mar. 15, 1902). In 1963, the Republic of Korea awarded him a Presidential Citation and in 1991, he was awarded the Order of National Foundation, Patriot Class (4^th Class).

Yi Jun’s remains were exhumed on Sept. 26, 1963 and transferred to South Korea. Since 1995, the former hotel De Jong, where he died, has become the Yi Jun Peace Museum, a private museum in his memory and dedicated to the promotion of peace. The museum was founded by a South Korean businessman Yi Kee-Hang and his wife Song Chang-ju. As far as I can determine, Yi Jun was not awarded any honors by the Korean Empire, but he was awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation, 1^st Class in 1962

---

No Baek-rin 노백린 (盧伯麟 1875 – 1926)

After graduating from the Japanese Military Academy in November 1899, he was appointed as an apprentice officer and in early 1900, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Japanese Army. After returning to Korea in October 1900 he was commissioned as a second lieutenant of the Army of the Korean Empire, and served as an infantryman and as an instructor at the Korean Military Academy.  He reorganized the Korea’s armed forces into a modern military force. After the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, he was promoted to lieutenant general and become the head of the education bureau of the Army Military Academy. He also served as the commander of the military police battalion. Because of the 1905 Ulsa Protection Treaty, the armed forces of the Korean Empire were disbanded in August 1907 and the Army Training School was closed.

A few days after the Japan-Japan Treaty was signed, Ito Hirobumi established the Residency-General in Seoul and invited Korean dignitaries to a banquet. Noh Baek-rin attended this event, along with pro-Japanese traitors Yi Wan-yong and Song Byeong-jun. When No Baek-rin saw them, he called to them like he was calling a dog. At that time, the Japanese commander, Hasegawa Yosemichi, understood the meaning of his actions, and drew his sword. In response, No Baek-rin also drew his sword. Ito Hirobumi hurriedly stopped Commander Hasegawa, but the banquet atmosphere was ruined. Afterwards, Noh Baek-rin, along with independence activists Ahn Chang-ho, Yang Gi-tak, and Yi Dong-nyeong, formed Shinminhoe, a secret society, and devoted themselves to restoring Korea’s national sovereignty. When the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty was concluded on October 1, 1910, he resigned from his government post and retired. The Japanese Government-General of Korea gave him the title of Baron and a silver gift, but he refused to accept it, and fled to the United States. Noh Baek-rin, moved to Hawaii, founded the National Army Corps in Oahugahalu, Hawaii and trained more than 300 independent soldiers.

In March 1919, he served as the Vice-Chancellor of Military Affairs in the Hanseong Provisional Government (founded in Kyungsung on April 23, 1919), immediately after the March 1st Independence Movement. On April 2, 1919, he participated in the creation of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and was appointed deputy general secretary of the Shanghai Provisional Government on April 10. On September 11, 1919, the Korean National Assembly of the Russian Maritime Province and the Hanseong Provisional Government of Gyeongseong were incorporated into the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, China. He was additionally selected as one of the representatives of the Paris Peace Conference along with Syngman Rhee, Ahn Chang-ho, Park Yong-man, Yi Dong-hwi, and Kim Kyu-shik. But he resigned as deputy of the Paris Peace Conference and moved to the United States. During his stay in the United States in September 1919, he was re-elected as the second general secretary of the military for the provisional government.

After moving back to the United States, he established Korea’s first Korean Aviation School in Willows, California on February 20, 1920, with active financial support from Kim Jong-rin, the first Korean-American millionaire, and others. The Independence Army pilot training center produced 77 graduates by 1923, but financial difficulties prevented the graduates from becoming an effective force. In Hawaii, he organized a Korean Independence Army unit, supposedly with the assistance of the US military.

In June 1922, he was appointed Acting Prime Minister by the nomination of President Syngman Rhee and in January 1923, he was officially appointed Prime Minister. On December 16, 1924, Park Eun-sik was appointed as the military secretary-general of the Provisional Government and the Minister of Transportation. In March 1925, he was appointed Prime Minister by the nomination of the 2nd President Park Eun-sik, and led the Provisional Government while concurrently serving as the Minister of Transportation and Secretary-General.

In April 1925, he resigned as prime minister, and in May he became chief of staff and devoted himself to fostering the independence army. He died of illness on January 22, 1926, in Shanghai.

He was awarded the Order of Taeguk, 5^th Class on Apr. 22, 1906 and the Order of the Eight Trigrams, 4^th Class on Oct. 28, 1909. In March 1962, He was awarded the 2^nd class of the Order of National Foundation Merit. His sons Noh Seon-kyung and Roh Tae-jun, and a daughter Noh Soon-kyung also participated in the independence movement and they were later awarded with the Order of National Foundation Merit for their contributions to the independence movement.

---

Yi Yong-Ik 이용익 (李容翊 1854 – 1907)

Yi Yong-Ik, was born into a poor aristocratic family in North Hamgyong Province 함경북도, which is located in the extreme north-east corner of Korea. As a child, he was able to study at a Seodang⁴ and because of the geographical advantage of his birthplace, he learned to speak Russian, an advantage that was to serve him well in his later years. He began his career as a peddler/merchant 보부상 (褓負商).⁵ He met Min Yeong-ik (閔泳翊) and with his recommendation, he secured a government position and eventually the trust of King Kojong, which firmly established his career path.

Eventually, he was put in charge of the royal finances and was able to increase the royal income by strictly managing the Sampo 삼포 (蔘圃)⁶ and the mines belonging to the Ministry of the Interior. On November 29, 1897, Yi was appointed as Director of the Jeonhwan section of the Ministry of Currency, which was responsible for printing money. On Dec. 3, 1897, he was placed in charge of all mining operations in Korea. In 1900, Yi was appointed as Hyeopan of the Ministry of Currency. On January 8, 1901, Yi was appointed as a Major of the Army. In 1902, he became the minister of currency. As the minister, Yi led the economic reforms of the Emperor Kwangmu Reform Movement (Kabo Reforms 갑오 개혁 (甲午改革) 1894-96). He prevented foreigners from mining in Korea to strengthen the authority of, and increase the finances of, Imperial Korea. In 1903, Yi became the supreme commander of the military police and was appointed Major General of the Korean Imperial Army. It was largely through his efforts that Korea was able to maintain neutrality during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. On Jan. 2, 1904, Yi Yong-ik globally telegraphed the “Korea Neutrality Declaration”.

He contributed to modern reforms while serving as the governor of the Northwest Railway Bureau and the governor of the Central Bank. He reorganized a weaving shop in Naejangsa into a modern factory. During his tenure, a model sericulture shop was set up to teach modern silk weaving techniques. He established industrial training centers in each province, and he attempted to train modern engineers in dyeing, weaving, papermaking, silver smithing, and woodworking. He also established a porcelain (沙器) manufacturing company in Seoul, and also built a gun factory. In addition, he introduced a modern lithographic printing machine in 1898 to print and sell stamps, trademarks, and landmarks, and to hold an exposition in 1903. He also actively supported the construction of railroads and the establishment of modern financial institutions, which subsequently had a great influence on modern reforms.

His politics consistently adhered to an anti-Japanese position. He established Boseong (보성) Elementary School and, on April 3, 1905, Boseong Vocational School to nurture talented people who he believed were the best investment for the nation’s future. With a Royal grant from Emperor Kojong, Yi Yong-ik, Treasurer of the Royal Household, established the school under the banner, “Education Saves the Country”. On August 15, 1946, the Boseong Vocational School was elevated to a university and took the name “Korea University”. The name, ‘Boseong 보성 (普成)’, means ‘to open up and achieve universal humanity’. It was bestowed by Emperor Kojong himself. The crest originally utilized by the school was a Plum Blossom 이화 (李花) with the Chinese Character 普, meaning “Universal” in the center position. The Plum Blossom was also the Imperial Seal of the Korean Empire. Yi also contributed to national enlightenment by setting up an editorial office, Boseong-gwan (普成館) and a printing office, Boseong-sa (普成社). (It was at Boseong-sa that the Declaration of Independence was printed during the March 1st Movement of 1919.)

In 1905, the Eulsa Treaty was forcibly concluded, which resulted in Korea being deprived of its national sovereignty under the so-called Japanese Protectorate. Because of his anti-Japanese position, and fearing that he might provoke problems, the Chosŏn government dismissed him from all public offices. He was essentially forced into exile by the Japanese, and in Sept. 1905, began traveling abroad. He died from disease in Vladivostok, Russia in 1907. There is another source that says he was assassinated by Kim Hyun-to in St. Petersburg, Russia. At the time of his death, he left a note to King Kojong, emphasizing Human Resource Education (the Gwanggeon School 광건 회복 廣建 回復) as a means of restoring Korea’s national sovereignty (國權回復).  King Kojong subsequently gave him the posthumous title of “Faithful” 충숙 (忠肅), and pardoned Yi of all his transgressions (possibly restoring his 1^st Class Order of Taeguk).

I have found several references to Yi Yong-ik receiving an Order of Merit from the Republic of Korea, but with no firm date of an award being given.  One reference states, that because of his instructions from Emperor Kojong to work with the Imperial Russian Government, he was awarded the Order of Cultural Merit.  The reference implies that the anti-communist regime in power during the 1960s and 70s, considered him to be “Pro-Russian” which could be construed as “Pro-Communist”. There is another reference which states that in August 1963, he received the Order of Civil Merit. There is still another reference, with no date given, that says he received the Order of Civil Merit 국민훈장 (國民勳章), Moran (Peony) Class 모란장 (牡丹章). On Jan. 16, 1967, under Presidential Decree #2929, Korea’s system of Orders and Medals was revised. The revision included the creation of a new Civil Merit Order with the older Order of Cultural Merit being absorbed by this new order, so these references could all be one and the same. In 2002, there was a major re-evaluation of Yi Yong-ik’s life and career, and as a result, around 2005, his descendants were trying to get his award upgraded to an Order of National Foundation.

Upon his death, Yi Yong-ik’s family had their property and positions confiscated by the Japanese. Nevertheless, his grandson, Yi Jong-ho 이종호 (李鍾浩 1885-1932) served as the headmaster of Boseong College, and worked in the anti-Japanese independence movement. He was awarded the Order of National Foundation 건국훈장 (建國勳章) Presidential Class 대통령장 (大統領章).

---

Kim Ga-jin 김가진 (金嘉鎭; 1846 – 1923)

Kim Ga-jin was an Imperial Korean politician, diplomat and an independence activist. He was born into a prestigious family but was an illegitimate child of a Kisaeng기생 (妓生). Despite his background, he started his career as Chamseogwan 참서관 (參書官) in the Royal library. In 1886, Kim passed the Kwagŏ literary examination 과거 (科擧 the national civil service examination). Emperor Kojong took notice of him and selected him as the first Plenipotentiary in the Korean legation in Japan (May 16, 1887, to Sept. 21, 1891). He was effectively the first Korean diplomat to be stationed on an overseas mission. He was soon fluent in Japanese, Chinese and English. During the four years he was stationed in Japan, Kim Ga-jin procured Western industrial machinery and scientific and technological books and sent them to Korea. On Apr. 1, 1895, he was appointed Minister of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry. On Aug. 27, 1895, Kim was appointed as the Korean envoy to Japan. Kim was an ardent supporter of reform and participated in the Gabo Reform 갑오개혁 (甲午改革 1894 – 1896). In July 1896, he joined the newly formed Independence Club. He was awarded a 2^nd Class of the Order of the Eight Trigrams on April 11, 1905. After the Japan–Korea (Eulsa) Treaty of Nov. 17, 1905, was signed, Kim showed his disapproval. As a result, on May 8, 1906, he was demoted to governor of South Chungcheong Province. He retired in 1907.

After the annexation of Korea in 1910, Kim was ennobled as a Baron, starting a new career as a collaborator. However, his pro-Japanese collaboration did not last long. Kim participated in the March 1^st Movement of 1919. After which he formed a secret independence organization called Chosŏn People’s Daedong dan 조선민족 대동단 (朝鮮民族大同團). On Oct. 10, 1919, he fled to Shanghai with the help of George Shaw, an Irish-British Korean independence activist. Kim Ga-jin, and others attempted to help Prince Ui escape to Shanghai and join the Korean Provisional Government. To this end, Kim requested cooperation from Ahn Chang-ho, the Prime Minister of the Provisional Government. On Oct. 9^th, Prince Ui left Susaek Train Station in Seoul, crossed the Yalu River, and arrived at Andong Station in Manchuria on November 12^th. However, the plan ended in failure when the Prince was arrested by Inspector Misan who was dispatched from the Pyonganbuk-do Police Department.

During Kim Ga-jin’s stay in Shanghai, the Government-General of Korea sent someone to persuade Kim to return to Korea and support the Japanese regime. Interestingly enough, after rejecting their offer, his Japanese title of Baron was never officially taken away and continued to be held even after his death.

After Daedong dan was dissolved, Kim joined the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Although a loyal subject of the Korean Empire, he did not advocate the restoration of the Korean Dynasty and instead, declared himself a member of the Republic of Korea. He died in Shanghai on July 4, 1922, but the location of his grave is unknown.

The South Korean Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs has not awarded him an Order of Merit for Independence. However, his son Kim Ui-han and daughter-in-law Jeong Jeong-hwa did receive the Order of Merit for Independence for their work. He purportedly did not receive the Order because of issues with his Japanese title of Baron. However, the Compilation Committee of the Dictionary of Pro-Japanese Figures recognized his anti-Japanese activities and did not list Kim Ga-jin as a traitor in the dictionary.

---

Horace Newton Allen 호러스 알렌 (1858-1932)

Horace Newton Allen was a missionary, physician, and American ambassador to Korea. He was the first Protestant missionary in Korea, arriving there on September 15, 1884. When Allen arrived in Korea, the law prohibited foreign religion, so he was appointed medical officer of the United States Legation to Korea in Seoul, thus hiding his true identity. His Korean name was 안련 (安連) which transliterates as “An Lian”.⁷

On December 4, 1884 the Gapsin Coup, a coup d’état, was staged by elite progressive officials, with the assistance of the Japanese army. However, the progressive government collapsed within 3 days as the Chinese army entered Seoul and defeated the Japanese forces. This event started with the assassination attempt on the life of the Queen’s favorite nephew, Min Young Ik 민영익 (閔泳翊 1860-1914), who was hosting a banquet to celebrate the opening of the nation’s first Post Office. He suffered 7 severe sword wounds. Dr. Allen was summoned and treated Min’s near mortal wounds, applying western medical methods against the objection of 14 of the royal court’s medical personnel. The wounds became infected, and it took 3 months before Dr. Allen’s treatment on him was completed. After treating Min Young-ik, Allen became close to the King Kojong and Queen Min.

Upon hearing the widespread rumor that a foreigner with a bushy red beard revived a dead prince, many people flocked to his house. He seized this opportunity to submit to the Korean Foreign Ministry “A proposal for founding a hospital for the government of His Majesty in Seoul Corea” with an introductory letter by J. C. Foulk, Charge de’Affair of the U.S. Legation. King Kojong granted his proposal and a western hospital named Gwang hye Won 광혜원 (廣惠院, House of Extended Grace) was opened in a traditional Korean estate on April 10, 1885. Two weeks after opening the hospital, King Kojong gave the hospital a new name Che jung won 제중원 (濟眾院, the House of Universal Helpfulness). A year later, Dr. Allen, John William Heron and Horace Underwood opened a medical school called the “Medical and Scientific School of the Royal Corean Hospital” and admitted 16 medical students. It was the first school to offer formal western medical education in Korea. In Sept. 1904, the hospital was renamed the Severance Hospital after the construction of a new building with a donation from Louis Henry Severance.⁸ Chejungwon/Severance Hospital has had several names over the years. For a while after the transition, the popular daily newspaper Donga Ilbo called the new hospital “New Chejungwon” and government official documents also referred to the new hospital as Shin Chejungwon (New Chejungwon). The newly renamed Severance Hospital was the direct descendant of Chejungwon.

Allen was part of the United States Legation to Korea. He was appointed as secretary in 1890 and was promoted to US minister and consul general in 1897.

King Kojong asked Allen to help open the Korea Legation in the United States of America, and Allen led a 12-man delegation to Washington, D. C. in November 1887. The Korean Legation was established in January 1888 when Minister Park J. Y presented an appointment letter to President Grover Cleveland. Allen helped operate the Korean Legation and carried out diplomatic activities (his position was “foreign secretary” 참찬관).

In the early 1890s, King Kojong was having difficulty in making arrangements to exhibit Korean goods and to send Korean representatives to the World’s Columbian Exhibition in Chicago, which was to be held in 1893. The King did not have anyone to handle the introductions and arrangements, but by chance, he discovered that Allen planned to attend the World’s Fair. He asked Allen to escort the Korean representatives to the fair and help make all the necessary arrangements for a Korean exhibition. It was a very complicated undertaking involving the procurement of exhibit space, the transporting the 26 cases of goods and making all the necessary arrangements for the group of Korean participants, who had never traveled outside of Asia before.

In July 1890, he was Secretary at the United States Legation in Seoul, he served as Minister / Consul General from 1897 to 1901 and was the Envoy Extraordinaire and Minister Plenipotentiary when the United States closed the legation in November 1905 (because of the Taft-Katsura Treaty). Allen was recalled in 1905, over disagreements with the United States government regarding the Taft-Katsura Agreement.⁹

Dr. Horace Ethan “Harry” Allen was invited to accept a South Korean Order of National Foundation, 3rd Class for his late father, Dr. Horace Allen. Unfortunately, he was unable to attend the March 1, 1950, award ceremony. Interestingly, the award documents given out at that ceremony stated that the award was the Order of Taiguk [sic]. For more on this award, see my “One Mystery Solved” webpage.

---

Franz Eckert 프란츠 에케르트 (埃巨多 1852 ~ 1916)

Franz Eckert arrived in the Korean Empire on February 19, 1901. Emperor Kojong ordered the official production of a national anthem On Jan. 27, 1902. The Prussian Franz Eckert was commissioned to write the composition.  At the time, he was the conductor of the Western-style band belonging to the Korean Empire. On July 1, 1902, he completed “Great Korean Empire Patriotic Song” 대한제국 애국가 (大韓帝國愛國歌). The lyrics were written by Young Hwan Min, who was an envoy to Russia. The national anthem of the Korean Empire was formally enacted and promulgated by the government on August 15, 1902. There were other Korean Patriotic songs 애국가 (lit. ‘Patriotism Song’) that resembled a National Anthem, but none of them were officially recognized. On December 20^th of that year, Franz Eckert was awarded the Order of the Taeguk 3^rd Class from Emperor Kojong for his contributions.

The composition was banned in 1910 due to the Japanese annexation of Korea. However, during the period of Japanese rule, the Japanese did publish an alternate version of the anthem, praising the emperor rather than the original lyrics calling for the continued independence and freedom of a (Korean) nation. With the changes to the anthem under Japanese rule, the text more closely resembled the lyrics of the Japanese national anthem. The Japanese anthem, Kimigayo 君が代, was also composed by Franz Eckert, and first played on the Imperial Palace of Japan on Nov. 3, 1880.¹⁰ Under Japanese rule, the Japanese national anthem officially replaced the national anthem of the Korean Empire. Over the years the original lyrics were lost, but were re-discovered on Aug. 13, 2004, by Yi Dong-guk of the Seoul Calligraphy Art Museum. The surviving specimen was kept by the Korean-American Club of Honolulu-Wahiawa. It had been published in 1910 under the title “Korean Old National Hymn” in English and 죠션국가 (lit. ’Korean national anthem’) in Korean. Hawaii has proven to be a valuable source for various pre-Japanese annexation heritage investigations by South Korea.  Many Korean Empire citizens immigrated to Hawaii before and during the Japanese annexation.

Franz Eckert died on August 8, 1916, in Seoul, and was buried in Yanghwajin Foreigners Cemetery in Seoul.

On Aug. 12, 2020, The Korean Cultural Heritage Administration announced that the sheet music of the “Korean Empire National Anthem” originally published in 1902 would be registered as a National Cultural Asset.

---

Unfortunately, a large number of decorated Koreans found in pictures were Ch’inilp’a.

Ch’inilp’a 친일파 (親日派 lit. “Pro-Japan faction”) is a commonly used, derogatory Korean term. It was first popularized in post-independence Korea and is used to describe those Koreans considered national traitors because of their collaboration with the Japanese colonial government or for their efforts against the Korean Independence Movement. It also applies to Koreans that had sought greater alliance or unification with Japan in the last years of Chosŏn Dynasty, such as the members of the Iljinhoe (一進會; 일진회 1904-1910)¹¹ Prosecution of Chinilpa gained increasing support in South Korea after the countries gradual democratization during the 1980s and 1990s. The first anti-chinilpa legislation, the “Pro-Japanese Property Return Act” 친일재산귀속법¹² was enacted some 60 years after liberation, in 2005. The law allowed for the confiscation of collaborator’s property if it was gained by pro-japanese, anti-nationalist activities. There are Chinilpa lists with anywhere from 705 to 7,000+ names, but the vast majority of these listed individuals were minor functionaries of the Japanese regime. Many of whom were just trying to make a living and were not involved in any significant decision-making. However, you must consider some of these minor functionaries if they actively enforced Japanese policies, people like police officers. Chinilpa lists include people widely detested as notorious traitors. But they also include many prominent post-liberation South Koreans, including: poets, novelists, composers, singers of popular songs, directors of top universities and newspapers, a scholar who helped write the South Korean Constitution, former presidents, prime ministers, and generals. Another derogatory term is Bu-ilbae 부일배 (附日輩), the literal translation being “People who collaborated with Japan”. However, it refers more to the ruling class of Chosŏn society which held large vested interests at the time. “Bu-il” means “serving Japanese imperialism” and goes beyond the simple concept of being close to Japan to mean ‘actively assisting Japan’. A term that is fairly often used is Pro-Japanese, anti-national activist 친일반민족행위자 (親日反民族行爲者). There is a term 학일파 (學日派) which means the “Study of the Japan Faction”. It insists on the need for an accurate understanding of Japanese collaboration. Because of this, there are a number of other terms which describe various nuances of collaboration. Some of the other terms are: Jong iljuuija 종일주의자 (從日主義者) and Jong ilpa 종일파 (從日派).

A term that carries a politically neutral connotation is ji-ilpa 지일파 (知日派), with a literal translation being “knowledgeable about Japan faction”.

Chosŏn Nobility 조선귀 (朝鮮貴) Lit. “Chosŏn Precious”
AKA 조선화족 (朝鮮華族), Lit. “Chosŏn Noble”
In Japanese, 華族 (Kazoku) commonly translates as: “Japanese Aristocratic (Peerage)” a system that existed from 1869 – 1947 and modeled on British Peerage.
Do not confuse with (家族) also pronounced as “kazoku”, but means “immediate family”

As part of the annexation of Korea, the Japanese government prepared a gift of 30 million (Korean) Yen in Bonds.¹³ From the gift, 6 million was paid directly to the Koreans who had played a role in the annexation. These Koreans also received titles of Japanese nobility, namely: Prince 공작, the equivalent of a European Duke (公爵), Marquess 후작 (侯爵), Count 백작, the equivalent of an Earl (伯爵), Viscount 자작 (子爵), and Baron 남작 (男爵). The titles were conferred according to the Chosŏn-Governor Vice-Emperor’s Decree No. 14, dated Aug. 29, 1910 (조선총독부황실령 제14호, 1910. 8. 29) entitled ‘Chosŏn Nobility Ordinance’ 조선 귀족령. These titles could also be inherited by the recipient’s descendants. However, Inheritance was not automatic, Article 11 states that “An heir who can inherit a title must report the inheritance to the Minister of the Interior within 6 months from the commencement of inheritance”. The keeping and inheritance of titles was conditional on “permanent pro-Japanese relations”, so the decree also included provisions for the ‘Return’ or ‘Suspension of Title’, and a ‘No Heritability’ clause in cases of disloyalty to Japan or non-compliance with Japanese policies. The biggest criterion that the Japanese had in mind when selecting Koreans for receiving a title of nobility was ‘merit’ judged during the forced annexation process. In addition, the Korean Imperial Family, and the King’s blood relatives were automatically given titles. Receiving a title of nobility does not necessarily include membership in Korea’s list of Chinilpa.  Several individuals refused the title. Some individuals initially accepted but later returned their titles, while some individuals become active participants in Korean Independence Movement, some covertly, others overtly.

The monetary gifts awarded to the newly entitled nobility, were not paid in cash, but were paid as a bond. The Korean nobility received a fraction of the amount each year in interest payments. The principal was to be repaid in full after 50 years, with a 5-year grace period. The interest rate was 5% per year and was paid at the Chosŏn Bank or Post Office in March and September of each year. Because of the fall of the Japanese occupation in 1945, no one received the promised 50-year maturity. By the living standards at the time, the annual interest payment was not a small amount of money. At the time of the annexation, deceased pro-Japanese Koreans such as Kim Ok-gyun, Seo Kwang-beom, Ahn Gyeong-su, Shin Ki-seon and Woo Beom-seon did not receive titles of nobility.  Their bereaved families were only given a small amount of silver/gold, probably in the form of bonds.

Some Chosŏn aristocrats lived rather poor lives, and there were quite a few cases of disgraced nobles who had their titles rescinded. In 1927, to prevent the economic downfall of the Chosŏn nobility, the “Ordinance on the Inheritance of Chosŏn Nobility” 조선귀족세습재산령 was enacted.  It set up hereditary property so that it could be protected from creditors. In 1928, the “Ordinance on the Protection of the Chosŏn Nobility” 조선귀족보호자금령 was promulgated to provide additional relief and protection for impoverished aristocrats.

As an aside, during most of the Chosŏn Dynasty, the title of Duke was merely an Honorific Character appended to the recipient’s name or title and was not an actual title of nobility.  For example: Admiral Yi Sun-sin 이순신 (李舜臣 1545 – 1598) was posthumously honored with the title Duke of Loyal Valor or Lord of Loyal Valot (충무공; 忠武公). Only members and direct descendants of the Korea Royal Family could hold the actual title of Duke. This was also true among Japanese titles of nobility.  

Books which expose Ch’inilp’a 친일파

The “Memorial of People of Merit in Chosŏn” 조선공로자명감 (朝鮮功勞者銘鑑) is a book that selects and organizes civil servants who cooperated or contributed to Japanese colonial rule from 1910 to 1935, and was published by the Japanese Government-General of Korea on November 30, 1935. This book has a total of 1,808 pages, 95 chapters and 4,649 sections, and records the pro-Japanese activities of a total of 2,913 people, including 2,560 Japanese and 353 Koreans who took the lead in colonial rule.

This book was first discovered in 1960 by Shim Jeong-seop 심정섭, a former vice principal of Songwon Girls’ High School in Gwangju and a local history researcher, but it was not until 22 years later, in 1982, that the authenticity of the material was confirmed by Baekgang Gyeong-han 백강 조경한, whose maternal grandfather was a State Councilor of the Provisional Government of Shanghai. However, it was not made public at the time. It was not until March 1, 2004, another 22 years later, that it was first revealed to the public.

The major figures included in “Memorial of People of Merit in Chosŏn” include about 60 people who received titles of noblity from the Japanese. Among them are Yi Wan-yong 이완용 and Park Young-hyo 박영효 as marquis, Song Byeong-jun 송병준 as count, and Yoon Deok-yeong 윤덕영, Min Byeong-seok 민병석, Min Yeong-gi 민영기, and Min Yeong-hwi 민영휘 as viscounts. The Barons include Yi Yun-yong 이윤용 and Yi Hang-gu 이항구. In addition, there is a list of 15 provincial governors, including Jeonbuk Governor Yi Jin-ho 이진호, and 146 county governors, as well as a list of officials who served as advisors, council members, provincial councilors, city councilors, and township councilors at the Jungchuwon 중추원 (Central Council), an advisory body to the Government General.

The “Memorial of People of Merit in Chosŏn” is an important resource for publishing the “Pro-Japanese Biographical Dictionary” 친일인명사전 and confirming the authenticity of pro-Japanese groups. The Japanese Government-General of Korea directly selected pro-Japanese collaborators who cooperated with Japanese rule. However, it only documents a relatively limited period of time, roughly 1910 to 1935, it does not include pro-Japanese figures after 1935, especially those from the 1940s, when Japan’s colonial rule reached its peak with the slogans of ‘Reforming the Imperial Kingdom’ 황국신민화 and ‘Uniting Korea and Japan’ 내선일체. Although pro-Japanese activities are not revealed in this book, there are people whose pro-Japanese activities were first discovered. There was also a lot of discussion about the criteria for selecting people, and many argued that the compilation committee’s distinction between voluntary pro-Japanese and coerced pro-Japanese figures was contrived and ambiguous. Also, keep in mind that in order for political prisoners (Independence Activist), to be released from prison, they were required to write a ‘Letter of Conversion’ 전향서, admitting their sins against the Japanese Government General authorities. Many of the Letters of Conversion were done as a result of torture. If you didn’t write a ‘conversion letter’, they would never let you out. Regarding fairness, some point out that the book does not include the Chosŏn royal family. But it was decided that it would be better to hold the royal family politically and morally responsible for the fall of the country rather than for pro-Japanese sentiments. The position of some royal family members was that of a hostage. There are many individuals who are not in the book, but are currently under investigation and may be included in subsequent publications. In addition, operators of Japanese military comfort stations during World War II are also on the list. Nevertheless, “Memorial of People of Merit in Chosŏn” is an important information source on the pro-Japanese faction in Korea.

An interesting little side note to show how most Koreans view Ch’inilp’a. In 2004, the National Assembly of the Republic of Korea cut the entire budget of the Institute for National Studies, which was preparing the book for publication. Ostensibly because the institute was being used as a tool for the political struggle between the ruling and opposition parties. After learning about this, angry Korean citizens collected and delivered more donations than the original amount budgeted by the National Assembly.

---

The Five Ulsa Traitors 을사오적

On November 17, 1905 (the year of Ulsa 을사), five Korean cabinet ministers agreed to make Korea a protectorate of Japan. They are known as The Five Ulsa Traitors 을사오적. They are:

---

Yi Ha-yeong 이하영 (1858-1929 李夏榮)

The life of Yi Ha-yeong was one of serendipity.

His impoverished Yangban family were members of a fallen political faction known as the Soron 소론 ( 少論). He had very little education and started his career as a Buddhist monk and glutinous rice cake peddler. When Pusan was opened to the Japanese in 1876, he got a job in a Japanese store where he learned business and the Japanese language. In 1884, he entered a business partnership with a Mr. Mo from Pyongyang. However, as soon as they arrived in Nagasaki, Japan, his partner absconded with their money. Nearly penniless, he headed back to Korea. On the passenger ship, from Nagasaki to Pusan, he met the medical missionary Dr. Horace Newton Allen.¹⁴ They arrived in Pusan on September 15, 1884, and with nowhere to go, Yi Ha-yeong started a new career as a cook for Dr. Allen in the U.S. Embassy. It was a mutually beneficial arrangement giving them an opportunity to teach each other, Korean and English. During the Gapsin Coup (Dec. 4-6, 1884), Min Yong-Ik 민영익 (閔泳翊 1860-1914) a close relative of the Royal Family, was badly wounded by sword slashes. The wounds became infected, but Dr. Allen was able to save his life. Subsequently, Dr. Allen became a regular guest at the royal palace accompanied by his interpreter Yi Ha-yeong. In 1885, Yi Ha-yeong, because of his English language skills, was appointed as a secretary at the Jejungwon.¹⁵ In 1886, he was an assistant secretary at the Foreign Affairs Office. In 1887, when the Plenipotentiary, Park Jeong-yang, and his party went to the United States, he was appointed as a foreign affairs secretary and accompanied them. In 1888, he was appointed as the acting Plenipotentiary to the U.S. and finally returned to Korea in 1889. After which, he held several different positions within the Korean government. In 1897, as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Japan, he attended the funeral of the Japanese Empress Dowager Eishō (英照皇太后 1835-1897) and received the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun, 1st Class. In 1899, he was again dispatched as the minister plenipotentiary to Japan. He actively cooperated in Japan’s infringement of Koreas financial and diplomatic rights by signing the “Memorandum on the Invitation of Financial and Diplomatic Advisors to Korea” 한국 재정고문 및 외교고문 초빙에 관한 각서. On April 1, 1905, he signed the “Agreement on the Entrustment of Korea-Japan Communication Agencies” 일한통신기관협정서 (日韓通信機關協定書) which allowed Japan free access to all roads in Korea. On August 13, 1905 he signed the “Agreement on Navigation of Korean Coastal Seas and Inland Rivers 한·일통신기관 위탁에 관한 협정서”, which granted permission for Japanese vessels to navigate the coastal and inland waters of Korea. Three Korean Ministers, Yi Ha-yeong, Yi Jae-geuk 이재극 (李載克) and Min Young-ki 민영기 (閔泳綺) did not sign the Eulsa (Protectorate) treaty of Nov. 17, 1905 and did not offer any objection. The three are commonly referred to as the Eulsa Three Evils 을사삼흉.¹⁶ In 1907, he became an advisor to the Privy Council, and worked as a promoter and councilor of the New Society신사회 which was organized to welcome the Japanese Crown Prince to Korea. He received the Japanese “Crown Prince of the Great Empire of Japan Commemorative Medal for the 1907 Korea visit” 大日本国皇太子 渡韓記念章, but I don’t know if he received the Korean medal for the same event. He participated in the several memorials for Ito Hirobumi (1841 – 1909) including the 10-year anniversary service.¹⁷ After the Annexation, on October 7, 1910, he received the title of Viscount for his contributions, and on January 13, 1911, he received a 50,000 (Korean) Yen bond. On August 1, 1912, he received the Korea Annexation Commemorative Medal. In October 1910, he was appointed as an advisor to the Privy Council of the Government-General of Korea and served until his death. In 1915, he became a meritorious member of the ‘Joseon Products Exhibition’ commemorating the 5th Anniversary of Japan’s colonial rule 시정오년기념조선물산공진회 (始政五年記念朝鮮物產共進會). On Nov. 10, 1915, he participated as a Korean representative at the Japanese Emperor Taisho’s enthronement ceremony in Japan and in 1915, he received the 1915 Taisho Enthronement Commemorative Medal 大正大禮章. In 1916, he became a member of the Japanese review committee for the highly distorted compilation project of the ‘History of the Korean Peninsula’. In 1917, he served as a council member of the Buddhist Protection Association. He held positions in many private companies. In 1926, he served as a funeral committee member for Emperor Sunjong. In 1928, he attended the Japanese Emperor’s Hirohito’s enthronement ceremony and received a commemorative medal for the ceremony. Immediately after his death on March 1, 1929, he was posthumously awarded the Order of the Rising Sun (Class unknown), and in June, his son Lee Gyu-won inherited his title.

His Korean awards include: The Order of Taeguk 2nd Class awarded on April 22, 1900, the Emperor’s 50th Birthday Commemorative Medal (August 1901), the Emperor’s 40th Anniversary Commemorative Medal (October 1902), the Order of the Eight Trigrams 1^st Class awarded on Mar. 19, 1905, the Emperor Sunjong’s Enthronement Ceremony Commemorative Medal (August 1907), the Order of Taeguk 1^st Class awarded on Dec. 28, 1907, Crown Prince’s Wedding Ceremony Commemorative Medal (January 1908) (Ceremony held on January 24, 1907), the Emperor’s Enthronement Ceremony Commemorative Medal (August 1907), and the Order of Taeguk 1st Class awarded on December 28, 1907.¹⁸

He was included in the 2002 list of 708 pro-Japanese collaborators, and in the 2007 list of 195 pro-Japanese anti-nationalists announced by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of the Republic of Korea.

His son Lee Gyu-won, served as director and vice president of the Joseon Aristocrats’ Association, and his grandson, Major General Yi Jong-chan 이종찬 (李鍾贊 1916-1983), served as the South Korean Army Chief of Staff 대한민국 육군참모총장 (大韓民國 陸軍參謨總長). During the Yeosun Incident (Oct. to Nov., 1948) Yi Jong-chan saved the life of Park Chung-hee. Both his son and grandson are included in the various lists of Pro-Japanese colaborators.

---

Min Byeong Seok 민병석 (閔丙奭)

The most decorated individual during the Korean Empire Period was the Korean Minister of the Household, Min Byeong-Seok 민병석 (1858-1940).  He was decorated eight times.  His decorations include: the Order of the Eight Trigrams, 3^rd Class (8-5-1901), two each of the Order of Taeguk, 1^st Class (3-16-1904 and 3-19-1905), the Order of the Eight Trigrams, 1^st Class (9-23-1904), two each of the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Plum Blossom (9-7-1907 and 9-28-1907), the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Auspicious Stars (3-20-1908) and the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Measure (8-26-1910).   Today he is regarded as a Chinilpa or traitor because he was one of the signers of the Japan-Korea Annexation Agreement 한일병합조약 of August 22, 1910. The Japanese awarded, and he accepted, the rank of Viscount in the Japanese aristocracy on Oct. 10th, 1910. In January 1911, he received a 100,000 (Korean) Yen Bond. In April 1934, he received a commendation and a silver medal in Commemoration of the 25th Anniversary of the establishment of the Chosŏn Government-General.

His wife 처심씨 (妻沈氏), was awarded the Order of the Auspicious Phoenix, 2^nd Class (Nov. 12, 1909) and the Order of the Auspicious Phoenix, 1^st Class (Aug. 21, 1910).

Min Bok-Ki, the son of Min Byeong-seok, was also an anti-nationalist pro-Japanese activist. After the liberation of Korea, he joined the Park Chung-hee dictatorship and is accused of committing judicial atrocities. On April 9, 1975, he sentenced the accused to death for their involvement in the Second People’s Revolutionary Party incident. The execution was carried out only 18 hours after the sentence, and his role has been criticized as judicial murder. In 1978, Min Bok-ki, then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was awarded the Order of Civil Merit, Mugunghwa Class for ‘contributing to the establishment of order’.

---

Song Byung-jun 송병준 (宋秉畯, 1857 ~ 1925)

Song Byung-jun was born an illegitimate child of a Kisaeng.¹⁹ The identity of his father has never been accurately established. Because of the handicap of his birth, he could not receive a formal education, but for a while, he did attend a Seodang and was able to pass the Korean Imperial Examination in 1871.

Following the failure of the Gapsin Coup of 1884, he went to Japan intending to assassinate the Enlightenment Party leader Kim Ok-gyun, but was won over to the pro-reformist movement. On his return to Korea, he was arrested on suspicion of collaboration with the Enlightenment Party, and although quickly released, he continued to face ongoing official harassment.  He subsequently returned to Japan, where he adopted the Japanese name of Heishun Noda (秉畯) or Noda Heijiro (Japanese: ノ田 平次郎). His nickname was ‘Noda Daegam’ and he is called Jeam (濟庵).

When the Russo-Japanese War broke out in 1904, he returned to Korea as an interpreter for Major General Odani Kikuzo [大谷喜久藏] of the Japanese army. It was at this time, that he secretly organized the Iljinhoe with Yi Yong-gu 이용구 (李容九) under instructions from the Japanese.²⁰

After The Hague Emissary Mission failed, Song Byung-jun took the lead in the movement to force the abdication of Emperor Gojong. After Sunjong assumed the throne, Song Byung-jun was awarded the Order of Taeguk, 1^st Class (Oct. 25, 1907).

As a leader in the Iljinhoe, he played an important role in the signing of the Korea-Japan Merger Treaty and after the annexation in 1910, Song Byung-jun was recognized for his contributions. He received the title of Viscount from the Japanese government in October 1910, and given a seat in the House of Peers of the Diet of Japan. After the annexation, he served on the Central Advisory Institute of the Government-General of Korea. In January 1911, he received a 100,000 (Korean) Yen Bond. His title was upgraded to Count in 1920.

He was listed as one of the 353 Koreans of merit in the “Memorial of People of Merit in Chosŏn” compiled by the Governor-General in 1935.

He died suddenly on Feb. 1, 1925 after attending a banquet hosted by Han Sang-ryong, a pro-Japanese businessman. There is a theory that someone poisoned him at the banquet. His funeral was held in Namsan-jeong, and a grand memorial service was also held at Tokyo’s Yasukuni Shrine.

---

Yi Yun-yong 이윤용 (李允用 1855-1938)

Yi Yun-yong was the illegitimate son of Yi Ho-jun (李鎬俊, 1821-1901) and the half-brother of Yi Wan-yong 이완용 (李完用) one of the Chinilpa mentioned above. He married the sister of King Kojong (the daughter of Heungseon Daewongun 흥선대원군).

Before 1900, he served in several capacities, culminating in 1898, when he was appointed as a legislative officer at the Law Correctional Center. He participated in the process of enacting, revising, and promulgating each regulation and article of the Korea National System 대한국국제 (大韓國國制). This was the national law of the Korean Empire and Korea’s first modern constitution, which was promulgated on August 17, 1899.  

In 1906, he served as president of the East Asia Development Education Association (東亞開進敎育會), which was organized for education and the development of the food industry. He also became president of the Honam Railway Company 호남철도회사. Furthermore, during 1906, he participated in the creation of, and served as, the vice-president of, the Hansung Bank 한성은행. He went on to serve as the bank’s president from 1911 to 1923. In 1907, he was appointed as a special advisor to the Ministry of the Interior and minister of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. He served as the president of the Red Cross 적십자사. He accompanied Crown Prince Yi Un 이은 (李垠) when he was forced to attend school in Japan. In January 1908, the Japanese awarded him the Grand Cordon of Rising Sun, First Class 훈1등 욱일동화대수장. He also served as a royal advisor, a member of the Chanmu Department 찬무부of the Giho Heunghak Society 기호흥학회.

In 1910, he served as the head of the National Poetry Campaign, which was organized to propagate that Chosŏn was unable to stand on its feet outside of Japan’s protection. He received the title of Japanese title of Baron 남작 on October 7, 1910, and a 25,000 (Korean) Yen Bond on January 13, 1911. He received the Korean Annexation Commemorative Medal 한국병합기념장 in August 1912. In 1915, he became a meritorious member of the ‘Kyeongseong (Seoul) Support Association of the Chosŏn Product Exhibition in Commemoration of the 5th Anniversary of the City Administration’‘시정5년기념 조선물산공진회 경성협찬회’. He was the head of the Chosŏn nobility who attended the Taisho Enthronement Ceremony in Japan, and received the Taisho ceremony commemorative medal 다이쇼대례기념장. In 1917, he served as an advisor to the Buddhist Advocates Association. He was appointed as Gyeonggi Provincial Governor in 1919, and was involved in the Chosŏn Agricultural Improvement Co., Ltd. 조선농사개량주식회사과 and Geumgangsan Electric Railway Co., Ltd. 금강산전기철도주, and participated in the ‘Goi Deungbakmungong 10 Years Festival’ ‘고이등박문공10년제’ commemorating the 10th anniversary of Ito’s death and visited his altar. He also attended the former Governor-General of Chosŏn’s ‘Terauchi [Temple of Righteousness] Incense Burning Ceremony’ ‘데라우치[寺內正義] 분향식’ and served as the chairman of the council of the Daejeong Friendship Association 대정친목회, a pro-Japanese group whose platform was domestic harmony. He worked at Gyeongseong Inso Co., Ltd. 경성취인소와 and Bukseon Heungeop Railway Co., Ltd. 북선흥업철도주식회.

In 1920, he attended the wedding ceremony of Korean Crown Prince Yi Un and Japanese Princess Masako of Nashimoto (方子女王 (이방자 李方子) 1901 – 1989). In 1926, he took on the role of advisor and funeral director for King Sunjong’s funeral 순종 장례. On October 2, 1928, he was appointed to an advisory body for the Governor-General of Korea 조선총독 with a salary of 3,000 (Korean) Yen per year. He served in that capacity until his death. He received the Showa Coronation Commemorative Medal 쇼와대례기념장 (昭和大禮記念章) in November 1928.

Immediately after his death on September 8, 1938, he was elevated to the 3rd level of the Japanese court rank system 位階, but I am unsure if it was a Senior 正三位 or Junior 従三位 3^rd Rank. In October of the same year, his grandson Yi Byeong-ok (李丙玉) inherited his title of Baron. He is listed as one of 353 Korean people of merit in the “Chosŏn Merit List” compiled by the Japanese Government General in 1935. He is found in both the list of 708 pro-Japanese people published in 2002 and the list of people scheduled to be included in the pro-Japanese biographical dictionary of the Institute for Korean Studies published in 2008. Not only that, but he is also included in the list of 195 people who committed pro-Japanese and anti-national activities published by the Republic of Korea’s Commission on Investigation of Pro-Japanese and Anti-National Acts in 2007.

Some sources say that he received an Order of Taeguk, 3^rd Class in 1900, but the listing that I have says it was a 2^nd Class. However, I went to the “Annals of Kojong” and on the entry for March 23, 1900 (37th year of King Kojong’s reign, April 22 in the solar calendar), I found: “… Yi Yun-yong, Minister of Uijeongbu, worked hard early on to watch the military training of neighboring countries. Everyone was there, so give special congratulations to the 3rd place winners. Bestow the Taeguk Medal to all of the above-mentioned people…”. According to this, he did receive an Order of Taeguk, 3rd Class on Apr. 22, 1900. He also received two separate Orders of Taeguk, 2^nd Class 太極正章二等 (태극정장이등) on Oct. 25, 1904, and on Oct. 11, 1907. He was awarded the Order of the Eight Trigrams, 1^st Class 八卦正章一等 (팔괘정장일등) on June 23, 1906, and the Order of the Plum Blossoms 李花大綬正章 (이화대수정장) on Feb. 14, 1908.²¹

---

Cho Tong-yun 조동윤 (趙東潤 1871–1923)

---

---

1. Cumings, Bruce. Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005.
2. Both awards are recorded in The Annals of King Kojong, Volume 45, 9^th year of Kwangmu, May 21, 1905.
3. Recorded in The Annals of King Kojong, Volume 46, 9^th year of Kwangmu, October 12, 1905.
4. A traditional boy’s school for studying the Chinese Classics.
5. In traditional Korean society, they were professional merchants who acted as an intermediary between producers and consumers.
6. Sampo consists of Sepo-gu located on the southeast coast, where Japanese people were allowed to live, travel and trade in the early Chosŏn Dynasty.
7. He is found in the Korean Empire Medal Roll under his Chinese written name 安連.
8. Louis Henry Severance (August 1, 1838 – June 25, 1913) was an American oilman and philanthropist who was a founding member of the Standard Oil Trust, the first treasurer of Standard Oil, and a sulfur magnate.
9. The Taft-Katsura Agreement, in effect, said that the United States would not interfere in Korea, if the Japanese do not interfere with the U.S. involvement in the Philippines. This was a clear violation of the Chosŏn American Treaty of 1882 (also called the Shufeldt Treaty). The 1882 treaty is recognized as Korea’s first treaty with a Western nation and set in place an understanding between the two nations of mutual friendship and mutual assistance in case of attack. The Taft-Katsura Agreement clearly shows that Korea was not well served by its 1882 treaty with the United States.
10. From 1888 to 1945, “Kimigayo” served as the national anthem for the Empire of Japan. The Empire dissolved at the end of World War II in 1945. The successor state was a parliamentary democracy, and not a polity based on imperial sovereignty. However, the U.S. occupation forces allowed Emperor Hirohito to retain the throne and “Kimigayo” remained the de facto national anthem. The 1999 passage of the “Act on National Flag and Anthem” officially recognized the Kimigayo as the national and imperial anthem.
11. The Iljinhoe was a pro-Japanese organization in Korea formed on August 8, 1904. With the failure of Korea’s isolationism, the Iljinhoe felt that Korea could not develop on its own, and demanded a merger with the Japanese Empire.
12. Special Act on National Return of Property of Pro-Japanese and Anti-National Actors 친일반민족행위자 재산의 국가귀속에 관한 특별법[Enforcement on December 29, 2005] [Law No. 7769, enacted on December 29, 2005] (abbreviated name: Pro-Japanese Property Return Act 약칭: 친일재산귀속법)
13. 30 million (Korean) Yen a considerable amount of money. When the Korean Empire collapsed, its government was bankrupt and had a debt of roughly 13 million (Korean) Yen. The 1909 total expenditure budget, in place at the time of annexation, was 51 million (Korean) Yen.
14. Horace Newton Allen, (1858 – 1932) graduated Medical School in 1883. He was assigned as a Presbyterian missionary in China, but things did not go well and on the advice of his fellow medical missionary, Dr. Henderson, he went to Korea, to start over. You will find more of his story on this page, above.
15. Jejungwon was the Korea’s first Western-style hospital, opened on April 10, 1885, under the order of King Kojong.
16. The Minister of justice참정대신 Han Gyu-seol 한규설 (韓圭卨) was the only one to voice a strong opposition to the Eulsa Treaty and he was quickly barred from government service.
17. Ito Hirobumi was the Japanese politician who many Koreans feel was the most responsible for the Annexation of Korea.
18. For the Orders I can give exact dates, because I have a copy of the Recipient Roll. However, I cannot give exact dates for the commemorative medals. There is no known recipient roll and I have to rely on various (possibly dubious) internet sources.
19. Kisaeng기생 (妓生), also called ginyeo 기녀 (妓女), were women from outcast or slave families who were trained to be courtesans, providing artistic entertainment and conversation to men of the upper class.
20. The Iljinhoe 일진회 (一進會) was a pro-Japanese organization in Korea formed on August 8, 1904. After seeing the failure of Korea’s isolationism, the party claimed that Korea could not develop on its own, and demanded a merger with the Japanese Empire. The group was disbanded, a month after the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty on Sept. 26, 1910.
21. Korean Empire Era, Decorations System 대한제국시대 훈장제도, Pp. 115, 122, 137, 146, and 159